I.2. Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

              A more balanced model of communicative competence is embraced nowadays and it emphasizes the possibility of a more efficient learning by means of an overt grammar instruction in order to accomplish defined communication tasks. Therefore, grammar becomes a tool for communicating more effectively, not an end in itself. In this context one may state that CLT does not mean the exclusion of grammar teaching. On the contrary, this process can be done in consonance with the principles of the communicative approach. 

              These principles can be summarised as follows : 

• teaching is learner-centred. This leads us to the idea that grammar lessons and activities should be based on the learner’s needs and interests. As Roger Bowers remarked : 'If we accept that a student will learn best what he wants to learn, less well what he only needs to learn, less well still what he neither wants nor needs to learn, it is clearly important to leave room in a learning programme for the learner's own wishes regarding both goals and processes.' As these features show, the communicative approach is concerned with the unique individual needs of each learner. In this way, learners can acquire the desired skills rapidly and agreeably.

• there is exposure to examples of authentic language from the target language community. So a communicative course uses materials that are authentic (that is, not originally intended for language teaching at all) or which simulate authenticity.

• learning to communicate is achieved through interaction in the target language.

• even if the main focus is on meaning and not on form, CLT  encourages learners to produce grammatically correct sentences (since grammar as well as pronunciation and vocabulary are, of course, necessary parts of effective communication). These sentences should be integrated in the appropriate context in order to achieve a communicative purpose. 

• in a 'communicative' classroom, the teacher cannot really predict what language is to be used by the learners because they will be engaged in 'natural' language activity—whether reading, listening, speaking or writing.

• the formal properties of language are never treated in isolation from use; language forms are always addressed within a communicative context so the teacher should provide the students with bits of language practised in context.

• learners are encouraged to discover the forms and structures of  the language for themselves. 

• the four traditional language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) are integrated. 

• the 'communicative' classroom also promotes techniques that encourage student participation. It is, therefore, not a teacher-dominated classroom but one in which there is great deal of group work, pair work, role play and simulation. The teacher’s role is not that of a judge so the environment for a “communicative” classroom is a supportive one.

• errors are tolerated as a natural part of the process of language acquisition. This is the cardinal principle of CLT. Fluency, rather than mere grammatical accuracy, would be the main concern of a communicatively oriented teacher. Such a teacher realizes that learners cannot help but make grammatical mistakes when engaged in a fluency activity like a group discussion. The teacher will therefore resist the temptation to correct a student's grammar or pronunciation during a communicative activity.  

                        I.3. Grammar and Communicative Language Teaching

              Taking into consideration the above principles, which is the relation between grammar and CLT? Can one find closeness between these two issues? The answer is “definitely yes”.

              Grammar is seen as the process of choosing forms and constructing language in response to communicative demands. It essentially involves the learner’s creative response to context and circumstance. Someone’s knowledge of grammar implies knowledge of how to recognize structures when spoken, how to identify them when written, how to understand in context and how to produce meaningful sentences.

              Grammar should be taught using all four language skills so that the students would be able to produce structures for oral and written communication, but at the same time to comprehend structures while listening or reading. The instructor will design a variety of activities directed to both form and communication. This diversity will enable students to concentrate in turn on increasing the level of language accuracy or developing fluency in English.

              Grammar errors should be corrected when grammar is the focus of an activity or when comprehensibility is strongly affected. The teacher needs to pay attention not to overcorrect as this could discourage students and communication could be impeded.

              Assessments should be made regarding pupils’ ability to use structures in the context of real-life tasks, according to the present instructional level of the trainees. The type of the assessment – oral or written - should depend on whether the focus has been on oral or written communication .

              As noticed before, the final goal of teaching grammar facilitates students’ accomplishment of their communication purposes and this goal has the following implications:

              - students need overt grammar instruction which connects grammar issues with larger communication contexts, in consonance  with the learners’ environment of situational possibilities;

              - grammar is a vehicle for communication so the students do not need to master every aspect of grammar, only those that are important or relevant to the immediate communicative task;

              - error correction is not always a priority for the instructor.

              Consequently, the teacher will deal with the following aspects in giving an overt grammar instruction:

              - the teaching process will be carried out in the target language or the students’ first language or both. Good understanding of the grammar points is essential; 

              - grammar explanations will be limited in time, especially for lower level students;

              - presentation of the grammar issues in oral and written ways to address the needs of students with different learning styles; 

Argument ……………………………………………………………............. 4

Chapter I – The Noun – General Considerations ………………………… 5

I.1. General principles of teaching grammar …………………………………. 5

I.2. Principles of Communicative Language Teaching ………………............. 7

I.3. Grammar and Communicative Language Teaching …………………….. 8

I.4. Definition of nouns. Classifications ……………………………………… 11

Chapter II- Countable Nouns ………………………………………………. 17

II.1. Features of countable nouns ……………………………………………. 17

II.2.Regular plurals …………………………………………………………… 17

II.3. Irregular plurals …………………………………………………............. 19

II. 4. The plural of compound nouns …………………………………………. 20

II.5. Nouns with two plural forms ……………………………………............ 21

II.6. Collective nouns ……………………………………………………….. 22

II. 7. Modalities of teaching countable nouns ………………………………... 23

II. 7.1.Teaching countable nouns deductively ……………………………….. 24

II. 7. 2. Teaching grammar inductively ………………………………............ 30

II.8. The role of practice and classroom activities with countable nouns ……. 36

Chapter III – Uncountable Nouns …………………………………............. 42

III.1. Features of uncountable nouns ………………………………………... 42

III.2. Classification of uncountable nouns …………….. ……………. ……. 43

III.3. The use of partitives with uncountable nouns ………………………... 48

III.4. Classroom activities to teach uncountable nouns ………………. …….. 49

Chapter IV – Countable and Uncountable Nouns – a comparative view ..    65

IV.1.Features of countable and uncountable nouns – comparison ………….. 65

IV.2. Use of determiners ……………………………………………………... 65

IV.3. Concord with the predicate …………………………………………….. 69

IV.4. Boundaries and “non-boundaries” between countable and uncountable     nouns ……………………………. …………………………………………... 71

IV.4.1.Uncountable nouns used as countable nouns …………………………. 71

IV.4.2.Usage of different words to render differences in meaning ………….. 74

IV.4.3.Countable nouns versus Pluralia Tantum Nouns ……………………... 74

IV. 5. Contrastive analysis 77

IV.6. Lesson plan 80

IV.7. Error analysis and error correction. Testing grammar …………............. 86

IV.8. Consolidation activities ………………………………………………… 100

Conclusions ………………………………………………………….............. 109

Bibliography ………………………………………………………………… 114